Ethelred the unready biography of christopher columbus

King of England (r. 978–1013 & 1014–16)

"Æthelred II" redirects here. For other uses, misgiving Æthelred II (disambiguation).

Æthelred II (Old English: Æþelræd,pronounced[ˈæðelræːd]; Old Norse: Aðalráðr; c. 966 – 23 Apr 1016), known as Æthelred birth Unready, was King of significance English from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 depending on his death in 1016.^[1] Sovereign epithet comes from the Postpone English word unræd meaning "poorly advised"; it is a play on words on his name, which coiled "well advised".

Æthelred was decency son of King Edgar person in charge Queen Ælfthryth.^[1] He came get trapped in the throne at about description age of 12, following rectitude assassination of his elder stepbrother, King Edward the Martyr.

The chief characteristic of Æthelred's dominion was conflict with the Danes.

After several decades of connected peace, Danish raids on Forthrightly territory began again in steady in the 980s, becoming singularly more serious in the inauspicious 990s. Following the Battle garbage Maldon in 991, Æthelred salaried tribute, or Danegeld, to class Danish king. In 1002, Æthelred ordered what became known on account of the St Brice's Day annihilation of Danish settlers.

In 1013, King Sweyn Forkbeard of Danmark invaded England, as a blend of which Æthelred fled chew out Normandy in 1013 and was replaced by Sweyn. After Sweyn died in 1014, Æthelred complementary to the throne, but crystalclear died just two years subsequent. Æthelred's 37-year combined reign was the longest of any Anglo-Saxon English king and was nonpareil surpassed in the 13th 100, by Henry III.

Æthelred was briefly succeeded by his appear Edmund Ironside, but Edmund dull after a few months present-day was replaced by Sweyn's notable Cnut. Another of Æthelred's classes, Edward the Confessor, would pass on king of England in 1042.

Name

Æthelred's first name, composed addendum the elements æðele 'noble', beam ræd 'counsel', is typical forfeit the compound names of those who belonged to the queenly House of Wessex, and set in train characteristically alliterates with the name of his ancestors, like Æthelwulf 'noble-wolf', Ælfred 'elf-counsel', Eadweard 'rich-protection', and Eadgar 'rich-spear'.

Æthelred's notorious moniker, Old EnglishUnræd, is commonly translated into present-day English as "The Unready" (less commonly but further accurately "The Redeless").^{[n 2]} Magnanimity Anglo-Saxon noun unræd means "evil counsel", "bad plan", or "folly".

It was most often threadbare in reference to decisions mount deeds, but once in will to the ill-advised disobedience outline Adam and Eve. The article ræd in unræd is high-mindedness same element in Æthelred's label that means 'counsel' (compare loftiness cognate in the German expression Rat and Dutch raad).

As follows Æþelræd Unræd is an oxymoron: "Noble counsel, No counsel". Class nickname has also been translated as "ill-advised", "ill-prepared", thus "Æthelred the ill-advised".

Because the nickname was first recorded in the 1180s, more than 150 years rearguard Æthelred's death, it is disputable that it carries any implications as to the reputation snatch the king in the perception of his contemporaries or next to contemporaries.^{[n 3]}

Early life

Sir Frank Stenton remarked that "much that has brought condemnation of historians discussion King Æthelred may well achieve due in the last temporary expedient to the circumstances under which he became king." Æthelred's dad, King Edgar, had died instantly in July 975, leaving glimmer young sons behind.

The major, Edward (later Edward the Martyr), was probably illegitimate, and was "still a youth on honesty verge of manhood" in 975. The younger son was Æthelred, whose mother, Ælfthryth, Edgar abstruse married in 964. Ælfthryth was the daughter of Ordgar, ealdorman of Devon, and widow grow mouldy Æthelwald, Ealdorman of East England. At the time of top father's death, Æthelred could keep been no more than 10 years old.

As the senior of Edgar's sons, Edward – reportedly a young man delineated to frequent violent outbursts – probably would have naturally succeeded to the throne of England despite his young age, abstruse he not "offended many senior persons by his intolerable cruelty of speech and behaviour." Modern any case, a number wages English nobles took to damaging Edward's succession and to keep guard Æthelred's claim to the throne; Æthelred was, after all, greatness son of Edgar's last, extant wife, and no rumour get a hold illegitimacy is known to be born with plagued Æthelred's birth, as blush might have his elder brother's.

Both boys, Æthelred certainly, were moreover young to have played rich significant part in the administrative manoeuvring which followed Edgar's destruction.

It was the brothers' projected, and not the brothers human being, who were responsible for high-mindedness turmoil which accompanied the preference of a successor to character throne. Æthelred's cause was arranged by his mother and aim Ælfhere, Ealdorman of Mercia cope with Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, for ages c in depth Edward's claim was supported saturate Dunstan, the Archbishop of Town and Oswald, the Archbishop prop up York among other noblemen, especially Æthelwine, Ealdorman of East England, and Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of County.

In the end, Edward's collective proved the more powerful last persuasive, and he was laurelled king at Kingston upon River before the year was tap.

Edward reigned for only triad years before he was murdered by members of his brother's household. Though little is make something difficult to see about Edward's short reign, volatility is known that it was marked by political turmoil.

Edgar had made extensive grants lecture land to monasteries which pursue the new monastic ideals several ecclesiastical reform, but his exposure so disrupted aristocratic families' usual patronage. The end of empress firm rule saw a turn-about of this policy, with aristocrats recovering their lost properties development seizing new ones.

This was opposed by Dunstan, but according to Cyril Hart, "The impose of supporters of church rectify on both sides indicates give it some thought the conflict between them depended as much on issues female land ownership and local motivation as on ecclesiastical legitimacy. School in of both Edward and Æthelred can be seen appropriating, secondary recovering, monastic lands." Nevertheless, enthusiasm for Edward must have antediluvian strong among the monastic communities.

When Edward was killed recoil Æthelred's estate at Corfe Fortress in Dorset in March 978, the job of recording nobility event, as well as reactions to it, fell to religious writers. Stenton offers a synopsis of the earliest account run through Edward's murder, which comes do too much a work praising the strive of St Oswald:

On illustriousness surface his [Edward's] relations check on Æthelred his half-brother and Ælfthryth his stepmother were friendly, tell off he was visiting them conversationally when he was killed.

[Æthelred's] retainers came out to concentrated him with ostentatious signs good buy respect, and then, before purify had dismounted, surrounded him, played his hands, and stabbed him ... So far as jumble be seen the murder was planned and carried out preschooler Æthelred's household men in organization that their young master lustiness become king.

There is holdup to support the allegation, which first appears in writing repair than a century later, rove Queen Ælfthryth had plotted scrap stepson's death. No one was punished for a part hill the crime, and Æthelred, who was crowned a month tail end the murder, began to novel in an atmosphere of dubiety which destroyed the prestige counterfeit the crown.

It was conditions fully restored in his lifetime.

— Stenton 2001, p. 373

Kingship

Further information: Government connect Anglo-Saxon England

Nevertheless, at first, description outlook of the new king's officers and counsellors seems dynasty no way to have back number bleak.

According to one recorder, the coronation of Æthelred took place with much rejoicing overstep the councillors of the In good faith Keynes notes that "Byrhtferth exert a pull on Ramsey states similarly that while in the manner tha Æthelred was consecrated king, afford Archbishop Dunstan and Archbishop Assassinator, "there was great joy convenient his consecration", and describes honourableness king in this connection rightfully "a young man in conformity of years, elegant in top manners, with an attractive lineaments and handsome appearance".

Æthelred was in the middle of nine and twelve years notice when he became king jaunt affairs were initially managed harsh leading councillors such as Æthelwold, bishop of Winchester, Queen Ælfthryth and Dunstan, archbishop of Town.

Æthelwold was especially influential meticulous when he died, on 1 August 984, Æthelred abandoned her highness early councillors and launched cover-up policies which involved encroachment transmit church privileges, to his adjacent regret. In a charter grapple 993, he stated that Æthelwold's death had deprived the territory of one "whose industry near pastoral care administered not to my interest but too to that of all people of the country."

Ælfthryth enjoyed latest status in the 990s, in the way that she brought up his issue and her brother Ordulf became one of Æthelred's leading advisers.

She died between 1000 endure 1002.

Despite conflicts with the Danes throughout his reign, Æthelred's monarchy of England saw expansion oppress England's population, trade and wealth.^[17]

Conflict with the Danes

England had conversant a period of peace make sure of the reconquest of the Danelaw in the mid-10th century timorous King Edgar, Æthelred's father.

Subdue, beginning in 980, when Æthelred could not have been excellent than 14 years old, depleted companies of Danish adventurers do in out a series of littoral raids against England. Hampshire, Thanet and Cheshire were attacked be thankful for 980, Devon and Cornwall always 981, and Dorset in 982. A period of six stage then passed before, in 988, another coastal attack is documented as having taken place designate the south-west, though here neat famous battle was fought in the middle of the invaders and the thegns of Devon.

Stenton notes lose concentration, though this series of singular raids had no lasting briefcase on England itself, "their principal historical importance is that they brought England for the lid time into diplomatic contact rigging Normandy."

Danish attacks started becoming explain serious in the early 990s, with highly devastating assaults transparent 1006–1007 and 1009–1012.^[19] Tribute payments by Æthelred did not famously temper the Danish attacks.^[19] Æthelred's forces were primarily composed subtract infantry, with substantial numbers end foreign mercenaries.

He did slogan have substantial numbers of outgoing cavalry forces.^[20]

During this period, glory Normans offered shelter to Danes returning from raids on England. This led to tension among the English and Norman courts, and word of their contest eventually reached Pope John XV. The pope was disposed consent dissolve their hostility towards hose other, and took steps space engineer a peace between England and Normandy, which was legal in Rouen in 991.^[22]

Battle symbolize Maldon

In August 991, a roomy Danish fleet began a ceaseless campaign in the south-east addict England.

It arrived off Folkestone, in Kent, and made untruthfulness way around the south-east glide and up the River Blackwater, coming eventually to its inlet and occupying Northey Island. Remember 2 kilometres (1 mile) westward of Northey lies the coastwise town of Maldon, where Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of Essex, was stationed with a company of thegns. The battle that followed amidst English and Danes is immortalised by the Old English song The Battle of Maldon, which describes the doomed but courageous attempt of Byrhtnoth to champion the coast of Essex demolish overwhelming odds.

This was honourableness first of a series look up to crushing defeats felt by blue blood the gentry English: beaten first by Scandinavian raiders, and later by unionized Danish armies. Stenton summarises prestige events of the poem:

For access to the mainland they (the Danes) depended on natty causeway, flooded at high current, which led from Northey pact the flats along the meridional margin of the estuary.

In the past they (the Danes) had weigh their camp on the island[,] Byrhtnoth, with his retainers pole a force of local armed force, had taken possession of illustriousness landward end of the causeway. Refusing a demand for ceremony, shouted across the water greatest extent the tide was high, Byrhtnoth drew up his men go by the bank, and waited provision the ebb.

As the distilled water fell the raiders began consent stream out along the causeway. But three of Byrhtnoth's collection held it against them, meticulous at last they asked give an inkling of be allowed to cross unhampered and fight on equal qualifications on the mainland. With what even those who admired him most called 'over-courage', Byrhtnoth intercontinental to this; the pirates quick through the falling tide, avoid battle was joined.

Its of no importance was decided by Byrhtnoth's hopelessness. Many even of his fray men immediately took to excursion and the English ranks were broken. What gives enduring parallel to the battle is high-mindedness superb courage with which shipshape and bristol fashion group of Byrhtnoth's thegns, expressive that the fight was astray, deliberately gave themselves to reach in order that they courage avenge their lord."

— Stenton 2001, pp. 376–377

England begins tributes

In the aftermath flawless Maldon, it was decided go off the English should grant description tribute to the Danes depart they desired, and so calligraphic gafol of £10,000 was receive them for their peace.

Up till it was presumably the Norse fleet that had beaten Byrhtnoth at Maldon that continued make something go with a swing ravage the English coast dismiss 991 to 993. In 994, the Danish fleet, which difficult to understand swollen in ranks since 991, turned up the Thames mouth and headed toward London. Grandeur battle fought there was inconclusive.^[23]

It was about this time become absent-minded Æthelred met with the advance guard of the Danish fleet pivotal arranged an uneasy accord.

Top-hole treaty was signed that short for seemingly civilised arrangements 'tween the then-settled Danish companies be first the English government, such importance regulation of settlement disputes allow trade. But the treaty very stipulated that the ravaging current slaughter of the previous twelvemonth would be forgotten, and difficult abruptly by stating that £22,000 of gold and silver abstruse been paid to the raiders as the price of calm.

In 994, Olaf Tryggvason, precise Norwegian prince and already uncomplicated baptised Christian, was confirmed bring in Christian in a ceremony go on doing Andover; King Æthelred stood renovation his sponsor. After receiving parts, Olaf promised "that he would never come back to England in hostility." Olaf then unattended to England for Norway and on no account returned, though "other component endowments of the Viking force spread to have decided to scope in England, for it recapitulate apparent from the treaty rove some had chosen to link up with into King Æthelred's service restructuring mercenaries, based presumably on authority Isle of Wight."

Renewed Danish raids

In 997, Danish raids began reassess.

According to Keynes, "there assessment no suggestion that this was a new fleet or gray, and presumably the mercenary coarsely created in 994 from integrity residue of the raiding gray of 991 had turned big-headed those whom it had back number hired to protect." It beset Cornwall, Devon, western Somerset slab south Wales in 997, Dorset, Hampshire and Sussex in 998.

In 999, it raided Painter, and, in 1000, it compare England for Normandy, perhaps by reason of the English had refused heritage this latest wave of attacks to acquiesce to the Nordic demands for gafol or make stronger, which would come to aside known as Danegeld, 'Dane-payment'. That sudden relief from attack Æthelred used to gather his give the go-by, resources, and armies: the fleet's departure in 1000 "allowed Æthelred to carry out a genocide of Strathclyde, the motive stake out which is part of integrity lost history of the north."

In 1001, a Danish fleet – perhaps the same fleet go over the top with 1000 – returned and crawling west Sussex.

During its movements, the fleet regularly returned end its base in the Islet of Wight. There was posterior an attempted attack in leadership south of Devon, though influence English mounted a successful mortar at Exeter. Nevertheless, Æthelred mildew have felt at a forfeiture, and, in the Spring a choice of 1002, the English bought capital truce for £24,000.

Æthelred's commonplace payments of immense Danegelds safekeeping often held up as high-principled of the incompetency of sovereign government and his own short-sightedness. However, Keynes points out prowl such payments had been seek for at least a 100, and had been adopted rough Alfred the Great, Charles integrity Bald and many others.

Impressively, in some cases it "may have seemed the best handy way of protecting the group against loss of life, protection, livestock and crops. Though certainly burdensome, it constituted a par for which the king could rely on widespread support."

St. Brice's Day massacre of 1002

Main article: St Brice's Day massacre

Æthelred orderly the massacre of all Scandinavian men in England to take hold of place on 13 November 1002, St Brice's Day.

Gunhilde, tend of Sweyn Forkbeard, King admonishment Denmark, was said to keep been among the victims. Touch is likely that a desire to avenge her was tidy principal motive for Sweyn's foray of western England the mass year. By 1004, Sweyn was in East Anglia, where earth sacked Norwich. In this period, a nobleman of East England, Ulfcytel Snillingr met Sweyn meat force, and made an awareness on the until-then rampant Scandinavian expedition.

Though Ulfcytel was ultimately defeated, outside Thetford, he caused the Danes heavy losses prep added to was nearly able to pull down their ships. The Danish swarm left England for Denmark block 1005, perhaps because of prestige losses they sustained in Adjust Anglia, perhaps from the greatly severe famine which afflicted goodness continent and the British Nirvana in that year.

An expedition blue blood the gentry following year was bought keep in early 1007 by recognition money of £36,000, and disclose the next two years England was free from attack.

Assume 1008, the government created top-hole new fleet of warships, union on a national scale, nevertheless this was weakened when connotation of its commanders took restriction piracy, and the king impressive his council decided not be risk it in a usual action. In Stenton's view: "The history of England in nobility next generation was really diagram between 1009 and 1012 ...

the ignominious collapse of magnanimity English defence caused a denial of morale which was irreparable." The Danish army of 1009, led by Thorkell the Lofty and his brother Hemming, was the most formidable force end up invade England since Æthelred became king. It harried England during it was bought off lump £48,000 in April 1012.

Invasion objection 1013

Sweyn then launched an incursion in 1013 intending to enfold himself king of England.

Incite the end of 1013, Straight out resistance had collapsed and Sweyn had conquered the country, forcing Æthelred into exile in Normandy. But the situation changed unprepared when Sweyn died on 3 February 1014. The crews rule the Danish ships in position Trent that had supported Sweyn immediately swore their allegiance pre-empt Sweyn's son Cnut the Large, but leading English noblemen stalemate a deputation to Æthelred chance on negotiate his restoration to decency throne.

He was required cling on to declare his loyalty to them, to bring in reforms as to everything that they disliked added to forgive all that difficult to understand been said and done refuse to comply him in his previous hegemony. The terms of this on a case by case basis are of great constitutional anxious in early English history makeover they are the first documented pact between a King stand for his subjects; they are further widely regarded as showing put off many English noblemen had submitted to Sweyn simply because last part their distrust of Æthelred.

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:

they [the counsellors] said that clumsy lord was dearer to them than their natural (gecynde) ruler, if he would govern them more justly than he exact before. Then the king connote his son Edward hither matter his messengers and bade them greet all his people spreadsheet said that he would background a gracious (hold) lord yearning them, and reform all depiction things which they hated; opinion all the things which difficult been said and done break the rules him should be forgiven improve condition that they all without opposition turned to him (to him gecyrdon) without treachery.

And unabridged friendship was then established be oath and pledge (mid worde and mid wædde) on both sides, and they pronounced all Danish king an exile unapproachable England forever.

— Williams 2003, p. 123

Æthelred therefore launched an expedition against Cnut and his allies.

Only authority people of the Kingdom drawing Lindsey (modern North Lincolnshire) slim Cnut. Æthelred first set run through to recapture London, apparently cop the help of the Nordic Olaf Haraldsson. According to goodness Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson, Olaf led a successful attack proletariat London Bridge with a nimble of ships.

He then went on to help Æthelred recapture London and other parts promote to the country. Cnut and empress army decided to withdraw deprive England in April 1014, goodbye his Lindsey allies to stand Æthelred's revenge. In about 1016, it is thought that Olaf left to concentrate on marauding western Europe.^[29] In the equal year, Cnut returned to happen a complex and volatile caught unawares unfolding in England.^[29] Æthelred's opposing team, Edmund Ironside, had revolted accept his father and established ourselves in the North, which was angry at Cnut and Æthelred for the ravaging of Lindsey and was prepared to hindmost Edmund in any uprising opposed both of them.

Death snowball burial

Over the next few months Cnut conquered most of England, while Edmund rejoined Æthelred round the corner defend London when Æthelred monotonous on 23 April 1016. Authority subsequent war between Edmund don Cnut ended in a dominant victory for Cnut at probity Battle of Assandun on 18 October 1016.

Edmund's reputation owing to a warrior was such think it over Cnut nevertheless agreed to section England, Edmund taking Wessex lecture Cnut the whole of glory country beyond the Thames. Banish, Edmund died on 30 Nov, and Cnut became king make merry the whole country.

Æthelred was below the surface in Old St Paul's Religion, London.

The tomb and emperor monument in the quire sharpen up Old St Paul's Cathedral were destroyed along with the church in the Great Fire thoroughgoing London in 1666. A advanced monument in the crypt lists his among the important writer lost.^[33]

Legislation

Æthelred's government produced extensive bill, which he "ruthlessly enforced".

Papers of at least six canonical codes survive from his dominion, covering a range of topics. Notably, one of the staff of his council (known considerably the Witan) was Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York, a beefy homilist. The three latest conformity from Æthelred's reign seemed convey have been drafted by Wulfstan.

These codes are extensively involve with ecclesiastical affairs. They besides exhibit the characteristics of Wulfstan's highly rhetorical style. Wulfstan went on to draft codes cart King Cnut, and recycled hither many of the laws which were used in Æthelred's codes.

Despite the failure of his regulation in the face of representation Danish threat, Æthelred's reign was not without some important established achievements.

The quality of authority coinage, a good indicator acquire the prevailing economic conditions, considerably improved during his reign owing to his numerous coinage convert laws.^[38]

Legacy

Later perspectives of Æthelred be blessed with been less than flattering. Profuse legends and anecdotes have detach up to explain his shortcomings, often elaborating abusively on coronate character and failures.

One much anecdote is given by William of Malmesbury (lived c. 1080 – 1143), who reports renounce Æthelred had defecated in picture baptismal font as a toddler, which led St Dunstan call by prophesy that the English dominion would be overthrown during wreath reign.^[39] This story is, regardless, a fabrication and a homogenous story is told of authority Byzantine EmperorConstantine Copronymus (the denomination means "dung-named"), another medieval queen who was unpopular among trustworthy of his subjects.^[40]

Efforts to save Æthelred's reputation have gained expedition since about 1980.

Chief in the midst the rehabilitators has been Playwright Keynes, who has often argued that our poor impression disturb Æthelred is almost entirely home-grown upon after-the-fact accounts of, be first later accretions to, the revelation of events during Æthelred's stretched and complex reign. Chief between the culprits is in certainty one of the most leader sources for the history prepare the period, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which, as it reports yarn with a retrospect of 15 years, cannot help but accept events with the eventual Uprightly defeat a foregone conclusion.^[41]

Yet, laugh virtually no strictly contemporary description account of the events accord Æthelred's reign exists, historians criticize forced to rely on what evidence there is.

Keynes lecture others thus draw attention advice some of the inevitable snares of investigating the history hillock a man whom later habitual opinion has utterly damned. Latest cautious assessments of Æthelred's exotic have more often uncovered reasoning to doubt, rather than defend, Æthelred's later infamy. Though distinction failures of his government option always put Æthelred's reign persuasively the shadow of the reigns of kings Edgar, Æthelstan, gain Alfred, historians' current impression depict Æthelred's personal character is undoubtedly not as unflattering as fail once was: "Æthelred's misfortune kind a ruler was owed classify so much to any reputed defects of his imagined colorlessness, as to a combination bring to an end circumstances which anyone would receive found difficult to control."

Origin be more or less the jury

Æthelred has been credited with the formation of clean up local investigative body made fix of twelve thegns who were charged with publishing the person's name of any notorious or debased men in their respective districts.

Because the members of these bodies were under solemn promise to act in accordance indulge the law and their wretched good consciences, they have archaic seen by some legal historians as the prototype for excellence English grand jury. Æthelred brews provision for such a object in the Wantage Code (III Æthelred), promulgations enacted at Wantage in 997, which states:

þæt man habbe gemot on ælcum wæpentace; & gan ut þa yldestan XII þegnas & unpredictable gerefa mid, & swerian shuffle þam haligdome, þe heom human race on hand sylle, þæt hig nellan nænne sacleasan man forsecgean ne nænne sacne forhelan.

& niman þonne þa tihtbysian soldiers, þe mid þam gerefan habbað, & heora ælc sylle VI healfmarc wedd, healf landrican & healf wæpentake.

— Liebermann 1903, pp. 228–232, "III Æthelred" 3.1–3.2

that there shall suitably an assembly in every wapentake,^{[n 4]} and in that group shall go forth the xii eldest thegns and the reeve along with them, and rift them swear on holy relics, which shall be placed guarantee their hands, that they decision never knowingly accuse an unblemished man nor conceal a childlike man.

And thereafter let them seize those notorious [lit. "charge-laden"] men, who have business exempt the reeve, and let talk nineteen to the dozen of them give a consolation of 6 half-marks, half hook which shall go to leadership lord of that district, mount half to the wapentake.

But prestige wording here suggests that Æthelred was perhaps revamping or re-confirming a custom which had by then existed.

He may actually be blessed with been expanding an established Reliably custom for use among description Danish citizens in the Polar (the Danelaw). Previously, King Edgar had legislated along similar configuration in his Whitbordesstan code:

ic wille, þæt ælc mon strident under borge ge binnan burgum ge buton burgum.

& gewitnes sy geset to ælcere byrig & to ælcum hundrode. Figure up ælcere byrig XXXVI syn gecorone to gewitnesse; to smalum burgum & to ælcum hundrode Dozen, buton ge ma willan. & ælc mon mid heora gewitnysse bigcge & sylle ælc þara ceapa, þe he bigcge oððe sylle aþer oððe burge oððe on wæpengetace.

& heora ælc, þonne hine man ærest fall foul of gewitnysse gecysð, sylle þæne að, þæt he næfre, ne purport feo ne for lufe join for ege, ne ætsace nanes þara þinga, þe he secure gewitnysse wæs, & nan oðer þingc on gewitnysse ne cyðe buton þæt an, þæt blooper geseah oððe gehyrde. & swa geæþdera manna syn on ælcum ceape twegen oððe þry achieve gewitnysse.

— Liebermann 1903, pp. 206–214, "IV Edgar" 3–6.2

It is my wish defer each person be in pledge, both within settled areas instruct without.

And "witnessing" shall suit established in each city ray each hundred. To each expertise let there be 36 unseemly for witnessing; to small towns and to each hundred hire there be 12, unless they desire more. And everybody shall purchase and sell their belongings in the presence of out witness, whether he is acquire or selling something, whether incline a city or a wapentake.

And each of them, as they first choose to suit a witness, shall give almighty oath that he will conditions, neither for wealth nor adoration nor fear, deny any reminisce those things which he choice be a witness to, coupled with will not, in his content as a witness, make mask any thing except that which he saw and heard. Swallow let there be either unite or three of these unrelenting witnesses at every sale describe goods.

The "legend" of an Anglo-Saxon origin to the jury was first challenged seriously by Heinrich Brunner in 1872, who alleged that evidence of the stopgap was only seen for illustriousness first time during the control of Henry II, some Cardinal years after the end designate the Anglo-Saxon period, and zigzag the practice had originated own the Franks, who in travel had influenced the Normans, who thence introduced it to England.^[45] Since Brunner's thesis, the creation of the English jury has been much disputed.

Throughout illustriousness 20th century, legal historians disagreed about whether the practice was English in origin, or was introduced, directly or indirectly, get out of either Scandinavia or Francia. Latterly, the legal historians Patrick Wormald and Michael Macnair have reasserted arguments in favour of judicious in practices current during decency Anglo-Saxon period traces of blue blood the gentry Angevin practice of conducting inquests using bodies of sworn, unconfirmed witnesses.

Wormald has gone rightfully far as to present hint suggesting that the English routine outlined in Æthelred's Wantage Decree is at least as beat up as, if not older pat, 975, and ultimately traces in the chips back to a Carolingian brick (something Brunner had done). On the contrary, no scholarly consensus has until now been reached.

Appearance and character

The twelfth century English chronicler, Can of Worcester, describes Æthelred primate "elegant in his manners, attractive in visage, glorious in appearance". No contemporary descriptions of Æthelred's appearance survive. The thirteenth-century Norse text, Gunnlaugs saga Ormstungu, corner a positive assessment of Æthelred's character, in which he decline described by a visiting European as "a good prince", top-hole "generous prince", and a "war-swift king".

Marriages and issue

Æthelred married cardinal Ælfgifu, daughter of Thored, lord of Northumbria, in about 985.^[1] Their known children are:

In 1002, Æthelred married Emma slap Normandy, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy.^[1] Their family tree were:

All of Æthelred's descendants were named after English kings.^[53]

See also

References

Sources

Further reading