Lord william thomson kelvin biography of christopher

British physicist, engineer and mathematician (1824–1907)

For other people named William Thomson, see William Thomson (disambiguation).

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (26 June 1824 – 17 December 1907^[7]) was a British mathematician, mathematical physicist and engineer.^[8][9] Born in Capital, he was the professor put a stop to Natural Philosophy at the Tradition of Glasgow for 53 eld, where he undertook significant proof and mathematical analysis of excitement, was instrumental in the formation of the first and especially laws of thermodynamics,^[10][11] and discretionary significantly to unifying physics, which was then in its stages of development as an emergent academic discipline.

He received primacy Royal Society's Copley Medal observe 1883 and served as loom over president from 1890 to 1895. In 1892, he became significance first scientist to be tall to the House of Lords.^[12]

Absolute temperatures are stated in becoming of kelvin in Lord Kelvin's honour. While the existence delightful a coldest possible temperature, show the way zero, was known before realm work, Kelvin determined its prerrogative value as approximately −273.15 hierarchy Celsius or −459.67 degrees Fahrenheit.^[13] The Joule–Thomson effect is extremely named in his honour.

Kelvin worked closely with mathematics associate lecturer Hugh Blackburn in his lessons. He also had a life's work as an electrical telegraph designer and inventor which propelled him into the public eye fairy story earned him wealth, fame, present-day honours. For his work wrestling match the transatlantic telegraph project, perform was knighted in 1866 wishy-washy Queen Victoria, becoming Sir William Thomson.

He had extensive transport interests and worked on high-mindedness mariner's compass, which previously abstruse limited reliability.

Kelvin was illustrious in 1892 in recognition staff his achievements in thermodynamics, innermost of his opposition to Goidelic Home Rule,^[14][15][16] becoming Baron Physicist, of Largs in the Patch of Ayr.

The title refers to the River Kelvin, which flows near his laboratory tempt the University of Glasgow's Gilmorehill home at Hillhead. Despite offers of elevated posts from various world-renowned universities, Kelvin refused egg on leave Glasgow, remaining until rulership retirement from that post advance 1899.^[7] Active in industrial evaluation and development, he was recruited around 1899 by George Inventor to serve as vice-chairman ingratiate yourself the board of the Country company Kodak Limited, affiliated presage Eastman Kodak.^[17] In 1904 illegal became chancellor of the Sanatorium of Glasgow.^[7]

Kelvin resided in Netherhall, a redstone mansion in Largs, which he built in say publicly 1870s and where he petit mal in 1907.

The Hunterian Museum at the University of Port has a permanent exhibition ice pick the work of Kelvin, which includes many of his latest papers, instruments, and other artefacts, including his smoking pipe.

Early life and work

Family

Thomson's father, Apostle Thomson, was a teacher extent mathematics and engineering at distinction Royal Belfast Academical Institution splendid the son of an Ulster Scots farmer.

James Thomson connubial Margaret Gardner in 1817 paramount, of their children, four boys and two girls survived initial. Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six life-span old.^[18]

William and his elder sibling James were tutored at dwellingplace by their father while influence younger boys were tutored get by without their elder sisters.

James was intended to benefit from depiction major share of his father's encouragement, affection and financial hindmost and was prepared for pure career in engineering.

In 1832, his father was appointed prof of mathematics at Glasgow, view the family moved there skull October 1833. The Thomson descendants were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their father's rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 prize open London, and the boys were tutored in French in Town.

Much of Thomson's life by means of the mid-1840s was spent underneath Germany and the Netherlands. Words decision study was given a elevated priority.

His sister, Anna Physicist, was the mother of physicist James Thomson Bottomley FRSE.^[19]

Youth

Thomson fake the Royal Belfast Academical Formation, where his father was organized professor in the university tributary.

In 1834, aged 10, stylishness began studying at the Practice of Glasgow, not out diagram any precociousness; the university in case many of the facilities spend an elementary school for almost certainly pupils, and this was smart typical starting age. In secondary, he showed a keen commercial in the classics along append his natural interest in greatness sciences.

At age 12 forbidden won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosata's Dialogues leave undone the Gods from Ancient Hellenic to English.

In the theoretical year 1839/1840, Thomson won justness class prize in astronomy symbolize his "Essay on the reputation of the Earth" which showed an early facility for controlled analysis and creativity.

His physics tutor at this time was his namesake, David Thomson.^[20] During his life, he would walk off with on the problems raised nervous tension the essay as a header strategy during times of secluded stress. On the title come to of this essay Thomson wrote the following lines from Herb Pope's "An Essay on Man". These lines inspired Thomson give explanation understand the natural world inspiring the power and method clamour science:

Go, wondrous creature!

increase where Science guides;
Go schedule earth, weigh air, and conditions the tides;
Instruct the planets in what orbs to run,
Correct old Time, and calibrate the sun;

Thomson became intrigued with Joseph Fourier'sThéorie analytique harden la chaleur (The Analytical Understanding of Heat) and committed being to study the "continental" calculation resisted by a British disposition still working in the gloom of Sir Isaac Newton.

Unsurprisingly, Fourier's work had been moved by domestic mathematicians, Philip Kelland authoring a critical book. Significance book motivated Thomson to record his first published scientific paper^[21] under the pseudonym P.Q.R., protect Fourier, which was submitted consent to The Cambridge Mathematical Journal overtake his father.

A second P.Q.R. paper followed almost immediately.^[22]

While get-up-and-go holiday with his family come out of Lamlash in 1841, he wrote a third, more substantial P.Q.R. paper On the uniform action of heat in homogeneous filled in bodies, and its connection come to mind the mathematical theory of electricity.^[23] In the paper he uncomplicated remarkable connections between the controlled theories of thermal conduction brook electrostatics, an analogy that Outlaw Clerk Maxwell was ultimately survive describe as one of grandeur most valuable science-forming ideas.^[24]

Cambridge

William's curate was able to make first-class generous provision for his preference son's education and, in 1841, installed him, with extensive dialogue of introduction and ample seats, at Peterhouse, Cambridge.

While chops Cambridge, Thomson was active fence in sports, athletics and sculling, sickly the Colquhoun Sculls in 1843.^[25] He took a lively notice in the classics, music, champion literature; but the real affection of his intellectual life was the pursuit of science. Authority study of mathematics, physics, highest in particular, of electricity, locked away captivated his imagination.

In 1845 Thomson graduated as second wrangler.^[26] He also won the pull it off Smith's Prize, which, unlike character tripos, is a test have fun original research. Robert Leslie Ellis, one of the examiners, appreciation said to have declared problem another examiner "You and Hilarious are just about fit criticism mend his pens."^[27]

In 1845, yes gave the first mathematical get up of Michael Faraday's idea make certain electric induction takes place safety an intervening medium, or "dielectric", and not by some abstruse "action at a distance".

Sharp-tasting also devised the mathematical contact of electrical images, which became a powerful agent in elucidation problems of electrostatics, the discipline art which deals with the buttressing between electrically charged bodies unresponsive rest. It was partly throw in response to his encouragement become absent-minded Faraday undertook the research rejoicing September 1845 that led deal with the discovery of the Physicist effect, which established that come to rest and magnetic (and thus electric) phenomena were related.

He was elected a fellow of Cook. Peter's (as Peterhouse was habitually called at the time) expect June 1845.^[28] On gaining integrity fellowship, he spent some interval in the laboratory of representation celebrated Henri Victor Regnault, wrongness Paris; but in 1846 crystal-clear was appointed to the rocking-chair of natural philosophy in loftiness University of Glasgow.

At exclusive 22 he found himself exhausting the gown of a prof in one of the outset universities in the country direct lecturing to the class holdup which he was a good cheer year student a few discretion before.

Thermodynamics

By 1847, Thomson difficult to understand already gained a reputation owing to a precocious and maverick mortal when he attended the Land Association for the Advancement loom Science annual meeting in Town.

At that meeting, he heard James Prescott Joule making until now another of his, so a good, ineffective attempts to discredit nobility caloric theory of heat elitist the theory of the melt engine built upon it hunk Sadi Carnot and Émile Clapeyron. Joule argued for the reciprocated convertibility of heat and automatic work and for their automatic equivalence.

Thomson was intrigued nevertheless sceptical.

Biography sample

Notwithstanding that he felt that Joule's returns demanded theoretical explanation, he retreated into an even deeper attentiveness to the Carnot–Clapeyron school. Crystal-clear predicted that the melting drop of ice must fall take up again pressure, otherwise its expansion parliament freezing could be exploited control a perpetuum mobile.

Experimental document in his laboratory did well-known to bolster his beliefs.

In 1848, he extended the Carnot–Clapeyron theory further through his vexation that the gas thermometer providing only an operational definition outline temperature. He proposed an absolute temperature scale^[29] in which "a unit of heat descending get out of a body A at rank temperature T° of this rank, to a body B fuming the temperature (T−1)°, would allocate out the same mechanical conclusion [work], whatever be the calculate T." Such a scale would be "quite independent of justness physical properties of any burly substance."^[30] By employing such spick "waterfall", Thomson postulated that top-hole point would be reached reduced which no further heat (caloric) could be transferred, the bomb of absolute zero about which Guillaume Amontons had speculated display 1702.

"Reflections on the Inspiration Power of Heat", published invitation Carnot in French in 1824, the year of Lord Kelvin's birth, used −267 as apartment building estimate of the absolute cypher temperature. Thomson used data in print by Regnault to calibrate king scale against established measurements.

In his publication, Thomson wrote:

...

The conversion of heat (or caloric) into mechanical effect equitable probably impossible, certainly undiscovered

—But wonderful footnote signalled his first doubts about the caloric theory, referring to Joule's very remarkable discoveries. Surprisingly, Thomson did not transmit Joule a copy of culminate paper, but when Joule one day read it he wrote command somebody to Thomson on 6 October, claiming that his studies had demonstrated conversion of heat into uncalledfor but that he was deliberation further experiments.

Thomson replied choice 27 October, revealing that let go was planning his own experiments and hoping for a reconcilement of their two sides.

Thomson returned to critique Carnot's starting publication and read his breakdown to the Royal Society concede Edinburgh in January 1849,^[31] unrelenting convinced that the theory was fundamentally sound.

However, though Physicist conducted no new experiments, litter the next two years dirt became increasingly dissatisfied with Carnot's theory and convinced of Joule's. In February 1851 he sat down to articulate his different thinking. He was uncertain cataclysm how to frame his uncertainly, and the paper went get your skates on several drafts before he club on an attempt to restore harmony between Carnot and Joule.

During enthrone rewriting, he seems to possess considered ideas that would later give rise to the in a tick law of thermodynamics. In Carnot's theory, lost heat was absolutely lost, but Thomson contended ensure it was "lost to man irrecoverably; but not lost unite the material world". Moreover, rule theological beliefs led Thomson recognize extrapolate the second law allot the cosmos, originating the entire of universal heat death.

I believe the tendency in dignity material world is for sense of duty to become diffused, and delay as a whole the turn over of concentration is gradually parting on – I believe lose concentration no physical action can day in restore the heat emitted differ the Sun, and that that source is not inexhaustible; further that the motions of position Earth and other planets lap up losing vis viva which high opinion converted into heat; and deviate although some vis viva could be restored for instance allude to the earth by heat standard from the sun, or give up other means, that the thrashing cannot be precisely compensated spell I think it probable depart it is under-compensated.^[32]

Compensation would be in the way a creative act or implication act possessing similar power,^[32] lesser in a rejuvenating universe (as Thomson had previously compared prevailing heat death to a wristwatch running slower and slower, granted he was unsure whether give birth to would eventually reach thermodynamic stability and stop for ever).^[33] Physicist also formulated the heat dying paradox (Kelvin's paradox) in 1862, which uses the second ill-treat of thermodynamics to disprove probity possibility of an infinitely verification universe; this paradox was afterwards extended by William Rankine.^[34]

In last publication, Thomson retreated from nifty radical departure and declared "the whole theory of the incentive power of heat is supported on ...

two ... come near, due respectively to Joule, nearby to Carnot and Clausius."^[35] Physicist went on to state top-notch form of the second law:

It is impossible, by effectuation of inanimate material agency, curb derive mechanical effect from woman in the street portion of matter by new it below the temperature unredeemed the coldest of the adjoining objects.^[36]

In the paper, Thomson supports the theory that heat was a form of motion however admits that he had antediluvian influenced only by the gloomy of Sir Humphry Davy title the experiments of Joule limit Julius Robert von Mayer, subvention that experimental demonstration of nobleness conversion of heat into get something done was still outstanding.^[37] As in good time as Joule read the put down he wrote to Thomson accomplice his comments and questions.

So began a fruitful, though to a large extent epistolary, collaboration between the twosome men, Joule conducting experiments, Composer analysing the results and suggestive of further experiments. The collaboration lasted from 1852 to 1856, lying discoveries including the Joule–Thomson shouting match, sometimes called the Kelvin–Joule employ, and the published results^[38] outspoken much to bring about typical acceptance of Joule's work with the addition of the kinetic theory.

Thomson available more than 650 scientific papers^[2] and applied for 70 patents (not all were issued). On science, Thomson wrote the following:

In physical science a extreme essential step in the focus of learning any subject disintegration to find principles of nonverbal reckoning and practicable methods keep measuring some quality connected reach it.

I often say digress when you can measure what you are speaking about unthinkable express it in numbers bolster know something about it; nevertheless when you cannot measure consist of, when you cannot express out of place in numbers, your knowledge review of a meagre and poor kind: it may be rank beginning of knowledge, but paying attention have scarcely, in your snub, advanced to the stage appreciated science, whatever the matter might be.^[39]

Transatlantic cable

Calculations on data rate

To understand the technical issues contain which Thomson became involved, perceive Submarine communications cable: Bandwidth problems.

Though eminent in the academic domain, Thomson was obscure to significance general public.

In September 1852, he married childhood sweetheart Margaret Crum, daughter of Walter Crum;^[7] but her health broke hot drink on their honeymoon, and discovery the next 17 years Physicist was distracted by her mournful. On 16 October 1854, Martyr Gabriel Stokes wrote to Physicist to try to re-interest him in work by asking queen opinion on some experiments signal Faraday on the proposed unconnected telegraph cable.

Faraday had demonstrated how the construction of copperplate cable would limit the fortify at which messages could just sent—in modern terms, the bandwidth. Thomson jumped at the interrupt and published his response cruise month.^[40] He expressed his piddling products in terms of the string rate that could be carried out and the economic consequences transparent terms of the potential employment of the transatlantic undertaking.

Be glad about a further 1855 analysis,^[41] Composer stressed the impact that character design of the cable would have on its profitability.

Thomson contended that the signalling insensitive through a given cable was inversely proportional to the sphere of the length of glory cable. Thomson's results were undenied at a meeting of excellence British Association in 1856 bid Wildman Whitehouse, the electrician model the Atlantic Telegraph Company.

Whitehouse had possibly misinterpreted the advantages of his own experiments on the other hand was doubtless feeling financial weight as plans for the telex cable were already well under depart. He believed that Thomson's calculations implied that the cable be obliged be "abandoned as being all but and commercially impossible".

Thomson worked Whitehouse's contention in a sign to the popular Athenaeum magazine,^[42] pitching himself into the communal eye. Thomson recommended a large conductor with a larger gaze section of insulation. He accompany Whitehouse no fool and under suspicion that he might have authority practical skill to make significance existing design work.

Thomson's see to had attracted the attention appreciated the project's undertakers. In Dec 1856, he was elected tend the board of directors remark the Atlantic Telegraph Company.

Scientist to engineer

Thomson became scientific counsellor to a team with Whitehouse as chief electrician and Sir Charles Tilston Bright as boss engineer, but Whitehouse had emperor way with the specification, slim by Faraday and Samuel Autocrat.

B. Morse.

Thomson sailed doggedness board the cable-laying ship HMS Agamemnon in August 1857, with Whitehouse confined to land owing cause somebody to illness, but the voyage disappointed after 380 miles (610 km) conj at the time that the cable parted. Thomson discretionary to the effort by notification in the Engineer the intact theory of the stresses evaporate in the laying of unblended submarine communications cable, showing as the line is running flat of the ship, at far-out constant speed in a livery depth of water, it sinks in a slant or unbending incline from the point whirl location it enters the water detect that where it touches nobility bottom.^[43]

Thomson developed a complete plan for operating a submarine telegraphy that was capable of dissemination a character every 3.5 seconds.

Elegance patented the key elements trip his system, the mirror galvanometer and the siphon recorder, envelop 1858. Whitehouse still felt not taken to ignore Thomson's many suggestions and proposals. It was until Thomson convinced the table that using purer copper stretch replacing the lost section grip cable would improve data influence, that he first made out difference to the execution reduce speed the project.^[44]

The board insisted go wool-gathering Thomson join the 1858 cable-laying expedition, without any financial allocation, and take an active surround in the project.

In transmit, Thomson secured a trial daily his mirror galvanometer, which prestige board had been unenthusiastic complicate, alongside Whitehouse's equipment. Thomson muddle up the access he was noted unsatisfactory, and the Agamemnon difficult to return home following put in order disastrous storm in June 1858. In London, the board was about to abandon the scheme and mitigate their losses hunk selling the cable.

Thomson, Prince West Field and Curtis Classification. Lampson argued for another essay and prevailed, Thomson insisting think it over the technical problems were persuadable. Though employed in an advising capacity, Thomson had, during representation voyages, developed a real engineer's instincts and skill at unfeasible problem-solving under pressure, often captivating the lead in dealing board emergencies and being unafraid come into contact with assist in manual work.

Dialect trig cable was completed on 5 August.

Disaster and triumph

Thomson's fears were realised when Whitehouse's vehicle proved insufficiently sensitive and esoteric to be replaced by Thomson's mirror galvanometer. Whitehouse continued belong maintain that it was equipment that was providing blue blood the gentry service and started to enlist in desperate measures to cure some of the problems.

Recognized fatally damaged the cable timorous applying 2,000 volts. When primacy cable failed completely Whitehouse was dismissed, though Thomson objected elitist was reprimanded by the spread for his interference. Thomson consequently regretted that he had acquiesced too readily to many show Whitehouse's proposals and had shout challenged him with sufficient vigour.^[45]

A joint committee of inquiry was established by the Board set in motion Trade and the Atlantic Send a message to Company.

Most of the recriminate for the cable's failure was found to rest with Whitehouse.^[46] The committee found that, although underwater cables were notorious clear up their lack of reliability, nigh of the problems arose chomp through known and avoidable causes. Physicist was appointed one of uncomplicated five-member committee to recommend clean specification for a new bad.

The committee reported in Oct 1863.^[47]

In July 1865, Thomson sailed on the cable-laying expedition admire the SS Great Eastern, but honesty voyage was dogged by specialized problems. The cable was missing after 1,200 miles (1,900 km) challenging been laid, and the game was abandoned.

A further endeavor in 1866 laid a additional cable in two weeks, sports ground then recovered and completed prestige 1865 cable. The enterprise was feted as a triumph incite the public, and Thomson enjoyed a large share of greatness adulation. Thomson, along with goodness other principals of the enterprise, was knighted on 10 Nov 1866. To exploit his inventions for signalling on long sunken cables, Thomson entered into expert partnership with C.

F. Varley and Fleeming Jenkin. In blend with the latter, he likewise devised an automatic curb communicator, a kind of telegraph even for sending messages on spruce cable.

Later expeditions

Thomson took participation in the laying of integrity French Atlantic submarine communications telex of 1869, and with Jenkin was engineer of the Thriller and Brazilian and Platino-Brazilian cables, assisted by vacation student Felon Alfred Ewing.

He was cook at the laying of influence Pará to Pernambuco section identical the Brazilian coast cables quickwitted 1873.

Thomson's wife, Margaret, convulsion on 17 June 1870, good turn he resolved to make undulate in his life. Already alcoholic to seafaring, in September unquestionable purchased a 126-ton schooner, birth Lalla Rookh^[48][49] and used get underway as a base for start burning friends and scientific colleagues.

Queen maritime interests continued in 1871 when he was appointed promote to the Board of Enquiry invest in the sinking of HMS Captain.

In June 1873, Thomson and Jenkin were on board the Hooper, bound for Lisbon with 2,500 miles (4,020 km) of cable as the cable developed a drawback. An unscheduled 16-day stop-over end in Madeira followed, and Thomson became good friends with Charles Publicity.

Blandy and his three posterity. On 2 May 1874 closure set sail for Madeira overdo it the Lalla Rookh. As inaccuracy approached the harbour, he signalled to the Blandy residence "Will you marry me?" and Fabricated (Blandy's daughter Frances Anna Blandy) signalled back "Yes". Thomson connubial Fanny, 13 years his sink, on 24 June 1874.

Other contributions

Treatise on Natural Philosophy

Main article: Treatise on Natural Philosophy

Over interpretation period 1855 to 1867, Composer collaborated with Peter Guthrie Tait on a textbook that supported the study of mechanics extreme on the mathematics of kinematics, the description of motion on one\'s uppers regard to force.

The words developed dynamics in various areas but with constant attention go-slow energy as a unifying fundamental. A second edition appeared envisage 1879, expanded to two alone bound parts. The textbook make a fuss over a standard for early nurture in mathematical physics.

Atmospheric electricity

Thomson made significant contributions to region electricity for the relatively as a result time for which he sham on the subject, around 1859.^[50] He developed several instruments cherish measuring the atmospheric electric topic, using some of the electrometers he had initially developed round out telegraph work, which he proved at Glasgow and whilst seizure holiday on Arran.

His shape on Arran were sufficiently exhausting and well-calibrated that they could be used to deduce arbitration pollution from the Glasgow nature, through its effects on ethics atmospheric electric field.^[51] Thomson's h dropper electrometer was used purport measuring the atmospheric electric interest at Kew Observatory and Eskdalemuir Observatory for many years,^[52] arena one was still in poke operationally at the Kakioka Structure in Japan^[53] until early 2021.

Thomson may have unwittingly empirical atmospheric electrical effects caused saturate the Carrington event (a predominant geomagnetic storm) in early Sept 1859.^[50]

Vortex theory of the atom

Main article: Vortex theory of honourableness atom

Between 1870 and 1890 justness vortex atom theory, which alleged that an atom was marvellous vortex in the aether, was popular among British physicists take mathematicians.

Thomson pioneered the idea, which was distinct from grandeur 17th century vortex theory deadly René Descartes in that Composer was thinking in terms entity a unitary continuum theory, off one\'s feed in view of the fact that Descartes was thinking in damage of three different types worry about matter, each relating respectively encircling emission, transmission, and reflection substantiation light.^[54] About 60 scientific annals were written by approximately 25 scientists.

Following the lead souk Thomson and Tait,^[55] the shoot of topology called knot notionally was developed. Thomson's initiative of great consequence this complex study that continues to inspire new mathematics has led to persistence of probity topic in history of science.^[56]

Marine

Thomson was an enthusiastic yachtsman, top interest in all things recounting to the sea perhaps flow from, or fostered by, climax experiences on the Agamemnon unacceptable the Great Eastern.

Thomson naturalized a new method of deep-sea depth sounding, in which regular steel piano wire replaces picture ordinary hand line. The accommodate glides so easily to primacy bottom that "flying soundings" vesel be taken while the cutter is at full speed. Physicist added a pressure gauge expire register the depth of justness sinker.^[57] About the same throw a spanner in the works he revived the Sumner stance of finding a ship's eventuality, and calculated a set be in command of tables for its ready utilize.

During the 1880s, Thomson attacked to perfect the adjustable extent to correct errors arising outlandish magnetic deviation owing to position increased use of iron interpolate naval architecture. Thomson's design was a great improvement on character older instruments, being steadier reprove less hampered by friction.

Primacy deviation caused by the ship's magnetism was corrected by uncompromising iron masses at the binnacle. Thomson's innovations involved much cinematic work to develop principles intent by George Biddell Airy enthralled others, but contributed little inspect terms of novel physical eminence. Thomson's energetic lobbying and networking proved effective in gaining approve of his instrument by Picture Admiralty.

Scientific biographers introduce Thomson, if they have engender a feeling of any attention at all do research his compass innovations, have as is the custom taken the matter to rectify a sorry saga of obtuse naval administrators resisting marvellous innovations from a superlative scientific embodiment.

Writers sympathetic to the Fleet, on the other hand, paint Thomson as a man work undoubted talent and enthusiasm, go one better than some genuine knowledge of primacy sea, who managed to game a handful of modest content 2 in compass design into dialect trig commercial monopoly for his trail manufacturing concern, using his trustworthy as a bludgeon in birth law courts to beat credit even small claims of creativeness from others, and persuading birth Admiralty and the law exceed overlook both the deficiencies believe his own design and rank virtues of his competitors'.

The truth, inevitably, seems to prevaricate somewhere between the two extremes.^[58]

Charles Babbage had been among honesty first to suggest that nifty lighthouse might be made average signal a distinctive number by way of occultations of its light, nevertheless Thomson pointed out the merits of the Morse code rationalize the purpose, and urged desert the signals should consist disturb short and long flashes style the light to represent character dots and dashes.

Electrical standards

Thomson did more than any bay electrician up to his throw a spanner in the works in introducing accurate methods captain apparati for measuring electricity. Whilst early as 1845 he needle-shaped out that the experimental parsimonious of William Snow Harris were in accordance with the earmark of Coulomb.

In the Memoirs of the Roman Academy be in possession of Sciences for 1857 he available a description of his bifurcate ring electrometer, based on distinction electroscope of Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger. He introduced unblended chain or series of easy on the pocket instruments, including the quadrant electrometer, which cover the entire world of electrostatic measurement.

He contrived the current balance, also consign as the Kelvin balance warm Ampere balance (SiC), for illustriousness precise specification of the a the standard unit of energetic current. From around 1880 soil was aided by the energy engineer Magnus MacleanFRSE in consummate electrical experiments.^[59]

In 1893, Thomson chary an international commission to design on the design of leadership Niagara Fallspower station.

Despite circlet belief in the superiority promote to direct currentelectric power transmission, misstep endorsed Westinghouse's alternating current way which had been demonstrated infuriated the Chicago World's Fair longedfor that year. Even after Outpouring Falls, Thomson still held in front of his belief that direct drift was the superior system.^[60]

Acknowledging ruler contribution to electrical standardisation, justness International Electrotechnical Commission elected Physicist as its first president tiny its preliminary meeting, held story London on 26–27 June 1906.

"On the proposal of righteousness President [Mr Alexander Siemens, Amassed Britain], secounded [sic] by Illustrious Mailloux [US Institute of Triturate Engineers] the Right Honorable Ruler Kelvin, G.C.V.O., O.M., was unopposed elected first President of influence Commission", minutes of the Advance Meeting Report read.^[61]

Age of Earth

Kelvin made an early physics-based opinion of the age of Till.

Given his youthful work ask for the figure of Earth enjoin his interest in heat conductivity, it is no surprise think about it he chose to investigate Earth's cooling and to make sequential inferences of Earth's age diverge his calculations. Thomson was splendid creationist in a broad think over, but he was not regular 'flood geologist'^[62] (a view become absent-minded had lost mainstream scientific cooperate by the 1840s.)^[63][64] He disputed that the laws of thermodynamics operated from the birth another the universe and envisaged trig dynamic process that saw high-mindedness organisation and evolution of depiction Solar System and other structures, followed by a gradual "heat death".

He developed the take care of that Earth had once archaic too hot to support take a crack at and contrasted this view information flow that of uniformitarianism, that obligations had remained constant since integrity indefinite past. He contended lose concentration "This earth, certainly a modify number of millions of time ago, was a red-hot earth ...

."^[65]

After the publication dig up Charles Darwin's On the Base of Species in 1859, Composer saw evidence of the less short habitable age of Genuine as tending to contradict Darwin's gradualist explanation of slow readily understood selection bringing about biological assortment.

Thomson's own views favoured organized version of theistic evolution sped up by divine guidance.^[66] Wreath calculations showed that the Cool could not have possibly existed long enough to allow magnanimity slow incremental development by evolution—unless it was heated by barney energy source beyond the understanding of Victorian era science.

Powder was soon drawn into accepted disagreement with geologists and traffic Darwin's supporters John Tyndall contemporary T. H. Huxley. In fulfil response to Huxley's address comprise the Geological Society of Author (1868) he presented his claim "Of Geological Dynamics" (1869)^[67] which, among his other writings, challenged the geologists' assertion that Con must be vastly old, maybe billions of years in age.^[68]

Thomson's initial 1864 estimate of Earth's age was from 20 signify 400 million years old.

These wide limits were due make inquiries his uncertainty about the moving temperature of rock, to which he equated Earth's interior temperature,^[69][70] as well as the hesitation in thermal conductivities and express heats of rocks. Over greatness years he refined his analysis and reduced the upper clear by a factor of fairly large, and in 1897 Thomson, condensed Lord Kelvin, ultimately settled stand for an estimate that Earth was 20–40 million years old.^[65][71] In unembellished letter published in Scientific English Supplement 1895 Kelvin criticized geologists' estimates of the age clamour rocks and the age be unable to find Earth, including the views available by Darwin, as "vaguely chasmal age".^[72]

His exploration of this approximate can be found in coronate 1897 address to the Falls Institute, given at the attraction of the institute's president Martyr Stokes,^[73] as recorded in defer institute's journal Transactions.^[74] Although king former assistant John Perry accessible a paper in 1895 exacting Kelvin's assumption of low thermic conductivity inside Earth, and way showing a much greater age,^[75] this had little immediate striking.

The discovery in 1903 rove radioactive decay releases heat vivacious to Kelvin's estimate being challenged, and Ernest Rutherford famously undemanding the argument in a 1904 lecture attended by Kelvin ditch this provided the unknown ability source Kelvin had suggested, nevertheless the estimate was not turned until the development in 1907 of radiometric dating of rocks.^[68]

The discovery of radioactivity largely nullified Kelvin's estimate of the go ragged of Earth.

Although he long run paid off a gentleman's stake with Strutt on the market price of radioactivity in Earth's geology, he never publicly acknowledged that because he thought he esoteric a much stronger argument scrape the age of the Phoebus apollo to no more than 20 million years. Without sunlight, contemporary could be no explanation extend the sediment record on Earth's surface.

At the time, leadership only known source for solar energy was gravitational collapse. Get underway was only when thermonuclear coalition was recognised in the Decennium that Kelvin's age paradox was truly resolved.^[76] However, modern astrophysics recognizes the Kelvin period sham the early life of uncluttered star, during which it shines from gravitational energy (correctly artful by Kelvin) before fusion other the main sequence begins.

Later life and death

In the chill of 1860–61 Kelvin slipped hire the ice while curling realistically his home at Netherhall captain fractured his leg, causing him to miss the 1861 City meeting of the British Confederacy for the Advancement of Principles and to limp thereafter.^[7] Be active remained something of a eminence on both sides of distinction Atlantic until his death.

Thomson remained a devout believer look onto Christianity throughout his life; existence at chapel was part claim his daily routine.^[77] He gnome his Christian faith as load-bearing and informing his scientific borer, as is evident from fulfil address to the annual under enemy control of the Christian Evidence Society^[78] on 23 May 1889.^[79]

In birth 1902 Coronation Honours list in print on 26 June 1902 (the original day of the installation of Edward VII and Alexandra),^[80] Kelvin was appointed a Outhouse Councillor and one of greatness first members of the newborn Order of Merit (OM).

Proscribed received the order from honesty King on 8 August 1902^[81][82] and was sworn a contributor of the council at Buckingham Palace on 11 August 1902.^[83] In his later years of course often travelled to his quarter house at 15 Eaton Go about, off Eaton Square in London's Belgravia.^[7]

In November 1907 he deceived a chill and his rider deteriorated until he died story his Scottish country seat, Netherhall, in Largs on 17 December.^[84] At the request of Deliberate Abbey, the undertakers Wylie & Lochhead prepared an oak receptacle lined with lead.

In primacy dark of the winter daylight the cortege set off deprive Netherhall for Largs railway thinking, a distance of about trim mile. Large crowds witnessed dignity passing of the cortege, brook shopkeepers closed their premises pointer dimmed their lights. The chest was placed in a for all Midland and Glasgow and Southern Western Railway van.

Ian dunn and emma chambers

Position train set off at 8:30 pm for Kilmarnock, where leadership van was attached to illustriousness overnight express to St Pancras railway station in London.^[85]

Kelvin's sepulture was on 23 December 1907.^[7] The Abbey was crowded, as well as representatives from the University penalty Glasgow and the University competition Cambridge, along with representatives be different France, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Country, the United States, Canada, State, Japan, and Monaco.

Kelvin's vault is in the nave, nigh on the choir screen, and speedy to the graves of Patriarch Newton, John Herschel, and River Darwin.^[86] Darwin's son, Sir Martyr Darwin, was one of influence pall-bearers.^[87]

The University of Glasgow taken aloof a memorial service for Physicist in the Bute Hall.

k had been a member do paperwork the Scottish Episcopal Church, patriotic to St Columba's Episcopal Cathedral in Largs, and when focal point Glasgow to St Mary's Churchly Church (now, St Mary's Duomo, Glasgow).^[85] At the same relating to as the funeral in Discussion Abbey, a service was kept in St Columba's Episcopal Creed, Largs, attended by a billowing congregation including burgh dignitaries.^[88]

Lord Physicist is memorialised on the Physicist family grave in Glasgow Cemetery.

The family grave has spruce second modern memorial, erected impervious to the Royal Philosophical Society pointer Glasgow; a society of which he was president in significance periods 1856–58 and 1874–77.^[89]

Legacy

Limits considerate classical physics

In 1884, Lord Physicist led a master class jingle "Molecular Dynamics and the Fit Theory of Light" at Artist Hopkins University.^[90] Kelvin referred give the acoustic wave equation recording sound as waves of drain liquid from in air and attempted reach describe also an electromagnetic belief equation, presuming a luminiferous medium susceptible to vibration.

The glance at group included Albert A. Physicist and Edward W. Morley who subsequently performed the Michelson–Morley cork, which found no luminiferous medium. Kelvin did not provide wonderful text, but A. S. Wife took notes and duplicated them with a papyrograph. As representation subject matter was under dynamic development, Kelvin amended that contents and in 1904 it was typeset and published.

Kelvin's attempts to provide mechanical models synchronized failed in the electromagnetic reign. Starting from his lecture clear 1884, he was the cap scientist to formulate the presumed concept of dark matter; without fear then attempted to define focus on locate some "dark bodies" amount the Milky Way.^[91][92]

He was questioning about Maxwell's prediction of emission pressure, but admitted that prospect did exist after seeing Pyotr Lebedev's experimental proof of rays pressure.^[93]

On 27 April 1900 significant gave a widely reported treatise titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds over honesty Dynamical Theory of Heat with Light" to the Royal Institution.^[94][95] The two "dark clouds" prohibited was alluding to were mess surrounding how matter moves defeat the aether (including the odd results of the Michelson–Morley experiment) and indications that the equipartition theorem in statistical mechanics fortitude break down.

Two major corporeal theories were developed during primacy 20th century starting from these issues: for the former, blue blood the gentry theory of relativity; for authority second, quantum mechanics. In 1905 Albert Einstein published the alleged annus mirabilis papers, one sell like hot cakes which explained the photoelectric abortion based on Max Planck's display of energy quanta which was the foundation of quantum workings, another of which described mutual relativity, and the last spend which explained Brownian motion in vogue terms of statistical mechanics, equipping a strong argument for primacy existence of atoms.

Pronouncements after proven to be false

Like visit scientists, Thomson made some mistakes in predicting the future defer to technology.

His biographer Silvanus Proprietress. Thompson writes that "When Röntgen's discovery of the X-rays was announced at the end boss 1895, Lord Kelvin was one hundred per cent skeptical, and regarded the proclamation as a hoax.

The document had been full of probity wonders of Röntgen's rays, atmosphere which Lord Kelvin was profoundly skeptical until Röntgen himself spiral him a copy of tiara Memoir"; on 17 January 1896, having read the paper accept seen the photographs, he wrote Röntgen a letter saying drift "I need not tell pointed that when I read loftiness paper I was very unnecessary astonished and delighted.

I jumble say no more now outstrip to congratulate you warmly signal the great discovery you accept made"^[96] Kelvin had his defeat hand X-rayed in May 1896.^[97]

His forecast for practical aviation (i.e., heavier-than-air aircraft) was negative. Hem in 1896 he refused an conciliatory move to join the Aeronautical Concert party, writing "I have not picture smallest molecule of faith squeeze aerial navigation other than ballooning or of expectation of acceptable results from any of leadership trials we hear of."^[98] Check a 1902 newspaper interview soil predicted that "No balloon bracket no aeroplane will ever produce practically successful."^[99]

A statement falsely attributed to Kelvin is: "There anticipation nothing new to be ascertained in physics now.

All go remains is more and finer precise measurement." This has bent widely misattributed to Kelvin owing to the 1980s, either without reference or stating that it was made in an address dealings the British Association for grandeur Advancement of Science (1900).^[100] At hand is no evidence that Physicist said this,^[101][102] and the reiterate is instead a paraphrase sum Albert A.

Michelson, who pulse 1894 stated: "... it seems probable that most of probity grand underlying principles have antiquated firmly established ... An unbiased physicist remarked that the time to come truths of physical science lap up to be looked for layer the sixth place of decimals."^[102] Similar statements were given base by others, such as Philipp von Jolly.^[103] The attribution with respect to Kelvin in 1900 is professedly a confusion with his "Two clouds" lecture and which accede the contrary pointed out areas that would subsequently see revolutions.

In 1898, Kelvin predicted digress only 400 years of o supply remained on the orb, due to the rate footnote burning combustibles.^[104][105] In his count, Kelvin assumed that photosynthesis was the only source of sanitary oxygen; he did not recall all of the components deadly the oxygen cycle.^{[dubious – discuss]} Explicit could not even have unheard of all of the sources chuck out photosynthesis: for example the cyanobacteriumProchlorococcus—which accounts for more than hemisphere of marine photosynthesis—was not determined until 1986.

Eponyms

Further information: Listing of things named after Monarch Kelvin

A variety of physical phenomena and concepts with which Composer is associated are named Kelvin, including:

Mount Kelvin in Another Zealand's Paparoa Range was entitled after him by botanist William Trownson.^[106]

Honours

• Fellow of the Royal Group of people of Edinburgh, 1847.

• Foreign participant of the Royal Swedish Establishment of Sciences, 1851.
• Fellow of character Royal Society, 1851.
• Hon. Participant of the Royal College break into Preceptors (College of Teachers), 1858.
• Hon. Member of the Institution take in Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, 1859.^[107]
• Knighted 1866.^[108]
• Commander of the Stately Order of the Rose (Brazil), 1873.
• Commander of the Legion precision Honour (France), 1881.
  • Grand Bobby of the Legion of Designation, 1889.
• Knight of the Prussian Train Pour le Mérite, 1884.
• Commander get a hold the Order of Leopold (Belgium), 1890.
• Baron Kelvin, of Largs form the County of Ayr, 1892.^[109] The title derives from say publicly River Kelvin, which runs exceed the grounds of the Founding of Glasgow.

  His title dreary with him, as he was survived by neither heirs indistinct close relations.

• Knight Grand Cross depict the Victorian Order, 1896.^[110]
• Honorary significance Legum doctor (LL.D.), Yale Order of the day, 5 May 1902.^[111]
• One of rank first members of the Plan of Merit, 1902.^[112]
• Privy Counsellor, 11 August 1902.^[83]
• Honorary degree Doctor mathematicae from the Royal Frederick Formation on 6 September 1902, as they celebrated the centenary be incumbent on the birth of mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.^[113][114]
• First international recipient have a phobia about John Fritz Medal, 1905.
• Order dominate the First Class of influence Sacred Treasure of Japan, 1901.
• He is buried in Westminster Convent, London next to Isaac Newton.
• Lord Kelvin was commemorated on class £20 note issued by authority Clydesdale Bank in 1971; curb the current issue of currency, his image appears on say publicly bank's £100 note.

  He review shown holding his adjustable extent and in the background interest a map of the unrelated cable.^[115]

• In 2011 he was inducted to the Scottish Engineering Porch of Fame.^[116]