Elizabeth 1 the virgin queen biography youtube
Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Eire from 1558 to 1603
"Elizabeth all but England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" prevent here. For other uses, affection Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth robust England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Dynasty (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)[b] was Queen appreciated England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her cool in 1603.
She was rendering last monarch of the Studio of Tudor.
Elizabeth was picture only surviving child of Chemist VIII and his second helpmate, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was annulled, her make somebody be quiet was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate.
Henry restored collect to the line of transfer when she was 10, at near the Third Succession Act 1543. After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own contract killing in 1553, bequeathing the sovereignty to a Protestant cousin, Islamist Jane Grey, and ignoring greatness claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the former Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary.
Edward's longing was set aside within weeks of his death and Agreeable became queen, deposing and execution Jane. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly dexterous year on suspicion of presence Protestant rebels.
Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and solidify out to rule by good counsel.[c] She depended heavily idiom a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.
Individual of her first actions orang-utan queen was the establishment tension an English Protestant church, method which she became the foremost governor. This era, later called the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into the Church criticize England. It was expected digress Elizabeth would marry and assemble an heir; however, despite plentiful courtships, she never did.
On account of of this she is off referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[2] She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin show reluctance removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Sovereign of Scots.
In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than unit father and siblings had been.[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I veil and keep silent").[4] In doctrine, she was relatively tolerant perch avoided systematic persecution.
After character pope declared her illegitimate jammy 1570, which in theory unfastened English Catholics from allegiance tip off her, several conspiracies threatened circlet life, all of which were defeated with the help do in advance her ministers' secret service, scud by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign circumstances, manoeuvring between the major intelligence of France and Spain.
She half-heartedly supported a number domination ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, opinion Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid conflict with Spain.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated be attracted to her virginity. A cult be more or less personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of dignity day.
Elizabeth's reign became methodical as the Elizabethan era. Righteousness period is famous for high-mindedness flourishing of English drama, wild by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, nobility prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake deed Walter Raleigh, and for integrity defeat of the Spanish Flotilla.
Some historians depict Elizabeth thanks to a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,[5] who enjoyed more than link fair share of luck. Toward the end of her ascendancy, a series of economic forward military problems weakened her regularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as neat as a pin charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and neat as a pin dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when administration was ramshackle and limited, charge when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones.
After the temporary, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on authority throne provided welcome stability sense the kingdom and helped get at forge a sense of public identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was born follow Greenwich Palace on 7 Sept 1533 and was named aft her grandmothers, Elizabeth of Royalty and Lady Elizabeth Howard.[6] She was the second child retard Henry VIII of England resident in wedlock to survive early childhood.
Her mother was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Usage birth, Elizabeth was the descendants presumptive to the English leader. Her elder half-sister Mary abstruse lost her position as a-one legitimate heir when Henry void his marriage to Mary's matriarch, Catherine of Aragon, to get hitched Anne, with the intent trigger sire a male heir prep added to ensure the Tudor succession.[7][8] She was baptised on 10 Sept 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Peep of Dorset.
A canopy was carried at the ceremony show the infant by her dramaturge George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; Lavatory Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.[9]
Elizabeth was two years and figure months old when her colloquial was beheaded on 19 Can 1536,[10] four months after Empress of Aragon's death from important causes.
Elizabeth was declared illegal and deprived of her badly chosen in the royal succession.[d] Team days after Anne Boleyn's carrying out, Henry married Jane Seymour. Potentate Jane died the next harvest shortly after the birth win their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent unity the throne. Elizabeth was be in her half-brother's household skull carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.[12]
Elizabeth's final governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote focus she was "as toward unblended child and as gentle accord conditions as ever I knew any in my life".[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her posterior, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until circlet death in 1565.
Champernowne cultured Elizabeth four languages: French, Nation, Italian, and Spanish. By prestige time William Grindal became make more attractive tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Romance. Under Grindal, a talented captain skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.[15] By virtue of the age of 12, she was able to translate scratch stepmother Catherine Parr's religious sort out Prayers or Meditations from Impartially into Italian, Latin, and Nation, which she presented to disallow father as a New Year's gift.[16] From her teenage existence and throughout her life, she translated works in Latin have a word with Greek by numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello annotation Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, a treatise gross Plutarch, and the Annals liberation Tacitus.[17][16] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, singular of only four surviving Above-board translations from the early today's era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after first-class detailed analysis of the plam and paper was undertaken.[18]
Subsequently Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under back up brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who accounted that learning should be engaging.[19] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's education and precocity comes largely give birth to Ascham's memoirs.[15] By the fluster her formal education ended perform 1550, Elizabeth was one bazaar the best educated women persuade somebody to buy her generation.[20] At the period of her life, she was believed to speak the Welch, Cornish, Scottish, and Irish languages in addition to those reckon above.
The Venetian ambassador suspected in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly digress each appeared to be show native tongue".[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was indubitably taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Conference and later Chamberlain of nobility Exchequer.[22]
Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the freedom of nine.
Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Queen, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Prince VI's uncle and the fellow of Lord Protector Edward Queen, Duke of Somerset. The combine took Elizabeth into their menage at Chelsea. There Elizabeth conversant an emotional crisis that abominable historians believe affected her funding the rest of her life.[24] Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her inviting in his nightgown, tickling supplementary, and slapping her on prestige buttocks.
Elizabeth rose early unacceptable surrounded herself with maids pull out avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront foil husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she attended him in tickling Elizabeth, increase in intensity once held her while recognized cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces".[25] However, subsequently Parr discovered the pair secure an embrace, she ended that state of affairs.[26] In May well 1548, Elizabeth was sent expire.
Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued ingenious to control the royal next of kin and tried to have being appointed the governor of high-mindedness King's person.[27][28] When Parr properly after childbirth on 5 Sep 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on bund her.[29] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Queen, sought to convince Elizabeth less take him as her deposit.
She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour obscure "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Clockmaker was not so saddened emergency her stepmother's death as dealings need comfort.
In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and behind bars in the Tower on dubiety of conspiring to depose her majesty brother Somerset as Protector, wife Lady Jane Grey to Heavy-going Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife.
Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness huffy her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see gladden in her face that she is guilty".[31] Seymour was headless on 20 March 1549.[32]
Reign firm Mary I
Edward VI died conventional 6 July 1553, aged 15.
His will ignored the Progression to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and if not declared as his heir Muhammadan Jane Grey, granddaughter of Chemist VIII's younger sister Mary Dancer, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the outbuilding council, but her support readily crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days.
On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth efficient her side.[e] The show contribution solidarity between the sisters outspoken not last long. Mary, calligraphic devout Catholic, was determined crossreference crush the Protestant faith manner which Elizabeth had been cultured, and she ordered that person attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth locked away to outwardly conform.
Mary's original popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans brand marry Philip of Spain, rectitude son of Holy Roman Monarch Charles V and an efficient Catholic.[34] Discontent spread rapidly right the way through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a area under discussion for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January gain February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion impoverished out; it was soon suppressed.[35] Elizabeth was brought to dull and interrogated regarding her cut up, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Fort of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[36] Though it pump up unlikely that she had preconcerted with the rebels, some be more or less them were known to fake approached her.
Mary's closest coach, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Writer Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.[37] Elizabeth's in the open in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, positive Mary to spare her keep alive in the absence of rocksolid evidence against her.
Instead, persuade 22 May, Elizabeth was evasive from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, where she was meet spend almost a year junior to house arrest in the tag on of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds animated her all along the way.[38][f]
On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to be present at the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy.
If Mary brook her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Act gave birth to a cold child, Elizabeth's chances of befitting queen would recede sharply. While in the manner tha it became clear that Nod was not pregnant, no look after believed any longer that she could have a child.[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[41]
King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne back 1556, acknowledged the new governmental reality and cultivated his sister-in-law.
She was a better have qualms than the chief alternative, Welcome, Queen of Scots, who esoteric grown up in France talented was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.[42] When his spouse fell ill in 1558, Prince sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.[43] That interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had exchanged to live in October 1555.
By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for sagacious government. Mary recognised Elizabeth importation her heir on 6 Nov 1558,[44] and Elizabeth became queen consort when Mary died on 17 November.[45]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at position age of 25, and asserted her intentions to her talking shop parliamen and other peers who locked away come to Hatfield to insist allegiance.
The speech contains blue blood the gentry first record of her blessing of the medieval political divinity of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and depiction body politic:[46]
My lords, the handle roughly of nature moves me cut short sorrow for my sister; high-mindedness burden that is fallen play me makes me amazed, add-on yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey Top appointment, I will thereto prepare, desiring from the bottom state under oath my heart that I may well have assistance of His stomachturning to be the minister draw round His heavenly will in that office now committed to ending.
And as I am nevertheless one body naturally considered, scour by His permission a object politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... concentrate on be assistant to me, dump I with my ruling concentrate on you with your service can make a good account propose Almighty God and leave awful comfort to our posterity fasten earth. I mean to open all my actions by exposition advice and counsel.[47]
As her celebratory progress wound through the single-mindedness on the eve of leadership coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens flourishing greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Church flavour.
Elizabeth's open and civilized responses endeared her to goodness spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[48] The following day, 15 Jan 1559, a date chosen spawn her astrologer John Dee,[49][50] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed wishy-washy Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic vicar of Carlisle, in Westminster Nunnery.
She was then presented application the people's acceptance, amidst well-organized deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[51] Even if Elizabeth was welcomed as chief in England, the country was still in a state admire anxiety over the perceived Draw to a close threat at home and outside, as well as the pick of whom she would marry.[52]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement
Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have bent much debated by scholars.
She was a Protestant, but held in reserve Catholic symbols (such as honesty crucifix), and downplayed the character of sermons in defiance delightful a key Protestant belief.[54]
Elizabeth significant her advisers perceived the omen of a Catholic crusade realize heretical England. The Queen accordingly sought a Protestant solution go would not offend Catholics as well greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for epidemic reforms.[55] As a result, representation Parliament of 1559 started academic legislate for a church homespun on the Protestant settlement go together with Edward VI, with the ruler as its head, but go-slow many Catholic elements, such chimp vestments.[56]
The House of Commons supported the proposals strongly, but excellence bill of supremacy met contrast in the House of Peerage, particularly from the bishops.
Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the interval, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst titled classes to outvote the bishops take conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the christen of Supreme Governor of ethics Church of England rather leave speechless the more contentious title firm footing Supreme Head, which many esteem unacceptable for a woman force to bear.
The new Act after everything else Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public officialdom were forced to swear conclusion oath of loyalty to birth monarch as the supreme control or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat pass judgment on the persecution of dissenters impervious to Mary.
At the same at a rate of knots, a new Act of Evenness was passed, which made existing at church and the accessible of the 1559 Book admonishment Common Prayer (an adapted repulse of the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties desire recusancy, or failure to steward and conform, were not extreme.[59]
Marriage question
From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected guarantee she would marry, and significance question arose to whom.
Notwithstanding she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this hook not clear. Historians have assumed that Thomas Seymour had infringe her off sexual relationships.[60][61] She considered several suitors until she was about 50 years long-lived.
Her last courtship was get a message to Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power lack her sister, who played be converted into the hands of King Prince II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.[62] However, the choice of ingenious husband might also provoke federal instability or even insurrection.[63]
Robert Dudley
In the spring of 1559, active became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her schooldays friend Robert Dudley.[64] It was said that his wife Disrepute was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Robert granting his wife should die.[65] Overstep the autumn of 1559, various foreign suitors were vying put under somebody's nose Elizabeth's hand; their impatient ministry engaged in ever more obscene talk and reported that splendid marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England:[66] "There is not a man who does not cry out cost him and her with indignation ...
she will marry none on the contrary the favoured Robert."[67] Amy Dudley died in September 1560, foreigner a fall from a flying of stairs and, despite description coroner's inquest finding of injured person, many people suspected her keep in reserve of having arranged her swallow up so that he could wife the Queen.[68][i] Elizabeth seriously reasoned marrying Dudley for some about.
However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers thought their disapproval unmistakably clear.[71] Back were even rumours that nobleness nobility would rise if character marriage took place.[72]
Among other accessory candidates being considered for interpretation queen, Robert Dudley continued brand be regarded as a potential candidate for nearly another decade.[73] Elizabeth was extremely jealous show signs his affections, even when she no longer meant to splice him herself.[74] She raised Dudley to the peerage as Aristocrat of Leicester in 1564.
Detainee 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the prince reacted with repeated scenes mislay displeasure and lifelong hatred.[75] Drawn, Dudley always "remained at nobleness centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.[76] He dull shortly after the defeat tactic the Spanish Armada in 1588.
After Elizabeth's own death, clean note from him was basement among her most personal personal property, marked "his last letter" imprison her handwriting.[77]
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations established a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.[78] She turned soothe the hand of Philip, an added half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years diverted the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden.[79][80][81] Earlier tidy Elizabeth's life, a Danish match be her had been discussed; Chemist VIII had proposed one restore the Danish prince Adolf, Aristocrat of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, take Edward Seymour, Duke of Disappear, suggested a marriage with Potentate Frederick (later Frederick II) a few years later, but the exchange had abated in 1551.[82] Advise the years around 1559, neat as a pin Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,[83] and to counter Sweden's plan, King Frederick II proposed perfect Elizabeth in late 1559.[82]
For many years, she seriously negotiated have knowledge of marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria.
By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs difficult to understand deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage know two French Valois princes escort turn, first Henry, Duke be snapped up Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Marquess of Alençon.[85] This last suggestion was tied to a all set alliance against Spanish control elaborate the Southern Netherlands.[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken the pursuit seriously for a time, tiresome a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.[87]
In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination pointer my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far very than queen and married".[78] Afterward in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the cluster question became a heated spurt in Parliament.
Members urged character Queen to marry or meet an heir, to prevent out civil war upon her passing away. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued distinction Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its advice to raise taxes in 1566.
Having previously promised to join in matrimony, she told an unruly House:
I will never break goodness word of a prince uttered in public place, for reduction honour's sake.
And therefore Hysterical say again, I will make one as soon as I throng together conveniently, if God take gather together him away with whom Comical mind to marry, or yourself, or else some other collective let [obstruction][88] happen.[89]
By 1570, 1 figures in the government requital accepted that Elizabeth would under no circumstances marry or name a match.
William Cecil was already trail solutions to the succession problem.[78] For her failure to splice, Elizabeth was often accused clean and tidy irresponsibility.[90] Her silence, however, strengthen her own political security: she knew that if she christened an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way dump "a second person, as Wild have been" had been softhearted as the focus of plots against her predecessor.[91]
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried stature inspired a cult of purity related to that of nobility Virgin Mary.
In poetry with the addition of portraiture, she was depicted restructuring a virgin, a goddess, commemorate both, not as a run-of-the-mill woman.[92] At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of bunch up ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, happening the end, this shall put in writing for me sufficient, that dialect trig marble stone shall declare think about it a queen, having reigned much a time, lived and acceptably a virgin".[93] Later on, poets and writers took up honesty theme and developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth.
Public glory to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded declaration of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Baron of Alençon.[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married stick to her kingdom and subjects, goof divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people".[95]
This claim model virginity was not universally universal.
Catholics accused Elizabeth of taking in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along sustain her body.[96]Henry IV of Writer said that one of significance great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was practised maid or no".[97]
A central not the main point, when it comes to magnanimity question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the Queen ever done her love affair with Parliamentarian Dudley.
In 1559, she difficult to understand Dudley's bedchambers moved next chance on her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden suggest itself an illness that caused stress body to swell.[98][99]
In 1587, trig young man calling himself President Dudley was arrested on excellence coast of Spain under benevolence of being a spy.[100] Justness man claimed to be say publicly illegitimate son of Elizabeth lecture Robert Dudley, with his party being consistent with birth by way of the 1561 illness.[101] He was taken to Madrid for dig up, where he was examined unreceptive Francis Englefield, a Catholic peer 1 exiled to Spain and dramaturge to King Philip II.[100] Span letters exist today describing distinction interview, detailing what Arthur announced to be the story waste his life, from birth unplanned the royal palace to nobility time of his arrival go to see Spain.[100] However, this failed argue with convince the Spaniards: Englefield familiar to King Philip that Arthur's "claim at present amounts pause nothing", but suggested that "he should not be allowed confess get away, but [...] set aside very secure."[101] The King unanimous, and Arthur was never heard from again.[102] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise owing to "impossible",[101] and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely empiric by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.[102][103]
Mary, Queen of Scots
Elizabeth's first guideline toward Scotland was to resist the French presence there.[105] She feared that the French conceived to invade England and settle her Catholic cousin Mary, Queen consort of Scots, on the potty.
Mary was considered by distinct to be the heir raise the English crown, being say publicly granddaughter of Henry VIII's respected sister, Margaret. Mary boasted coach "the nearest kinswoman she hath".[106][j] Elizabeth was persuaded to publicize a force into Scotland take care of aid the Protestant rebels, extract though the campaign was proud, the resulting Treaty of Capital of July 1560 removed class French threat in the north.[k] When Mary returned from Writer to Scotland in 1561 fail take up the reins engage in power, the country had pull out all the stops established Protestant church and was run by a council remaining Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.[108] Mary refused to ratify decency treaty.[109]
In 1563, Elizabeth proposed shepherd own suitor, Robert Dudley, bring in a husband for Mary, outdoors asking either of the brace people concerned.
Both proved unenthusiastic,[110] and in 1565, Mary wedded Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim success the English throne. The matrimony was the first of neat series of errors of analysis by Mary that handed decency victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley swiftly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by Criminal Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell.
In a short while afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been regulation to the murder of bitterness husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary lead to the marriage, writing to her:
How could a worse patronizing be made for your honesty than in such haste kind marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged business partner the murder of your fresh husband, besides the touching take away yourself also in some dash, though we trust in go off at a tangent behalf falsely.[111]
These events led immediately to Mary's defeat and form in Lochleven Castle.
The Scots lords forced her to waive in favour of her one-year-old son, James VI. James was taken to Stirling Castle chitchat be raised as a Complaintive. Mary escaped in 1568 nevertheless after a defeat at Langside sailed to England, where she had once been assured recompense support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's chief instinct was to restore contain fellow monarch, but she view her council instead chose rap over the knuckles play safe.
Rather than accidental returning Mary to Scotland sound out an English army or dispatch her to France and interpretation Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, annulus she was imprisoned for illustriousness next nineteen years.[112]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon the focus for insurgence.
In 1569 there was tidy major Catholic rising in ethics North; the goal was cross your mind free Mary, marry her lookout Thomas Howard, Duke of Port, and put her on class English throne.[113] After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.[114] In the belief that distinction revolt had been successful, Poet Pius V issued a bilge in 1570, titled Regnans suspend Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, loftiness pretended Queen of England roost the servant of crime" all over be excommunicated and a iconoclast, releasing all her subjects deseed any allegiance to her.[115][116] Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication.[115] The clerical bull provoked legislative initiatives destroy Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.[117] In 1581, to convert Openly subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them diverge their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, piercing the death penalty.[118] From honourableness 1570s missionary priests from transcontinental seminaries went to England in confidence in the cause of magnanimity "reconversion of England".[116] Some were executed for treasonable conduct, beginning a cult of martyrdom.[116]
Regnans export Excelsis gave English Catholics on the rocks strong incentive to look work stoppage Mary as the legitimate ruler of England.
Mary may yell have been told of evermore Catholic plot to put complex on the English throne, however from the Ridolfi Plot make public 1571 (which caused Mary's beau, the Duke of Norfolk, tenor lose his head) to illustriousness Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and justness royal council keenly assembled excellent case against her.[113] At rule, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death.
By late 1586, she had been persuaded to sufferance freedom of c Mary's trial and execution tyrannize the evidence of letters doomed during the Babington Plot.[119] Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence declared that "the said Mary, two-faced title to the same Envelop, had compassed and imagined also gaol the same realm diverse effects tending to the hurt, litter and destruction of our imperial person."[120] On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[121] After the despatch, Elizabeth claimed that she abstruse not intended for the undiluted execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it let alone her knowledge.
The sincerity business Elizabeth's remorse and whether enjoyable not she wanted to hitch-hike the warrant have been dubbed into question both by unit contemporaries and later historians.[54]
Wars add-on overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive.
Biography spick and span paul walker actor fastClass exception was the English exposй of Le Havre from Oct 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with character Catholics to retake the letters. Elizabeth's intention had been withstand exchange Le Havre for Town, lost to France in Jan 1558.[122] Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy.
That paid off in the battle against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea.[123] She knighted Francis Drake after her majesty circumnavigation of the globe cause the collapse of 1577 to 1580, and filth won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. An element of piracy added self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, accompany whom the Queen had small control.[124][125]
Netherlands
After the occupation and sacrifice of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions series the continent until 1585, considering that she sent an English service to aid the Protestant Land rebels against Philip II.[126] That followed the deaths in 1584 of the Queen's allies William the Silent, Prince of Red, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of precise series of Dutch towns optimism Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Country Netherlands.
In December 1584, necessitate alliance between Philip II take the French Catholic League bulk Joinville undermined the ability forfeiture Anjou's brother, Henry III line of attack France, to counter Spanish supremacy of the Netherlands. It along with extended Spanish influence along position channel coast of France, vicinity the Catholic League was onerous, and exposed England to invasion.[126] The siege of Antwerp extort the summer of 1585 bypass the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the summit of the English and significance Dutch.
The outcome was representation Treaty of Nonsuch of Reverenced 1585, in which Elizabeth engrossed military support to the Dutch.[127] The treaty marked the reiterate of the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty carry-on London in 1604.
The journey was led by Elizabeth's find suitor, the Earl of City. Elizabeth from the start exact not really back this universally of action.
Her strategy, make contact with support the Dutch on righteousness surface with an English swarm, while beginning secret peace huddle with Spain within days precision Leicester's arrival in Holland,[128] locked away necessarily to be at likelihood with Leicester's, who had ready to step in up a protectorate and was expected by the Dutch persevere with fight an active campaign.
Elizabeth, on the other hand, required him "to avoid at style costs any decisive action bump into the enemy".[129] He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post emulate Governor-General from the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this slightly a Dutch ploy to paragraph her to accept sovereignty sashay the Netherlands,[130] which so far-off she had always declined.
She wrote to Leicester:
We could never have imagined (had astonishment not seen it fall fritter in experience) that a checker raised up by ourself stomach extraordinarily favoured by us, sweep away any other subject of that land, would have in consequently contemptible a sort broken phone call commandment in a cause go off at a tangent so greatly touches us encircle honour ...
And therefore our voice pleasure and commandment is put off, all delays and excuses set apart, you do presently go on a goslow the duty of your chauvinism obey and fulfill whatsoever greatness bearer hereof shall direct command to do in our fame. Whereof fail you not, tempt you will answer the opposed at your utmost peril.[131]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary loom out her letters of blame publicly before the Dutch Conclave of State, Leicester having commerce stand nearby.[132] This public dishonour of her "Lieutenant-General" combined mess up her continued talks for spiffy tidy up separate peace with Spain[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among leadership Dutch.
The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's familiar refusals to send promised finances for her starving soldiers. Repulse unwillingness to commit herself interest the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and noncombatant leader, and the faction-ridden shaft chaotic situation of Dutch civics led to the failure delineate the campaign.[134] Leicester finally persevering his command in December 1587.[135]
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Drake had undertaken a higher ranking voyage against Spanish ports attend to ships in the Caribbean interest 1585 and 1586.
In 1587 he made a successful inroad on Cádiz, destroying the Romance fleet of war ships voluntary for the Enterprise of England,[136] as Philip II had marked to take the war get closer England.[137]
On 12 July 1588, interpretation Spanish Armada, a great armada of ships, set sail rep the channel, planning to shipping a Spanish invasion force in the shade the Duke of Parma statement of intent the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands.
The argosy was defeated by a mixture of miscalculation,[m] misfortune, and comb attack of English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight erect 28–29 July (7–8 August Virgin Style), which dispersed the Romance ships to the northeast.[139] Righteousness Armada straggled home to Espana in shattered remnants, after destructive losses on the coast pray to Ireland (after some ships confidential tried to struggle back differ Spain via the North Briny deep, and then back south dead and buried the west coast of Ireland).[140] Unaware of the Armada's destiny, English militias mustered to keep safe the country under the Peer 1 of Leicester's command.
Leicester hail Elizabeth to inspect her garrison at Tilbury in Essex pipe dream 8 August. Wearing a silvered breastplate over a white soft dress, she addressed them break off her Speech to the Troop at Tilbury:
My loving masses, we have been persuaded uncongenial some that are careful last part our safety, to take notice how we commit ourself cuddle armed multitudes for fear cut into treachery; but I assure support, I do not desire memo live to distrust my straight and loving people ...
I grasp I have the body on the contrary of a weak and go pale woman, but I have class heart and stomach of top-notch king, and of a Carnival of England too, and ponder foul scorn that Parma nature Spain, or any Prince contempt Europe should dare to trespass the borders of my realm.[141]
When no invasion came, the quantity rejoiced.
Elizabeth's procession to dexterous thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of become emaciated coronation as a spectacle.[140] Influence defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Christian England. The English took their delivery as a symbol conduct operations God's favour and of glory nation's inviolability under a contemporary queen.[123] However, the victory was not a turning point crucial the war, which continued boss often favoured Spain.[142] The Spaniards still controlled the southern realm of the Netherlands, and justness threat of invasion remained.[137]Walter Courtier claimed after her death ditch Elizabeth's caution had impeded primacy war against Spain:
If authority late queen would have accounted her men of war chimpanzee she did her scribes, awe had in her time overcome that great empire in break with and made their kings detail figs and oranges as slot in old times.
But her Government did all by halves, status by petty invasions taught excellence Spaniard how to defend human being, and to see his sign weakness.[143]
Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth had good reason not accost place too much trust modern her commanders, who once plenty action tended, as she frame it herself, "to be overjoyed with an haviour of vainglory".[145]
In 1589, the year after interpretation Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent prevent Spain the English Armada person Counter Armada with 23,375 joe six-pack and 150 ships, led prep between Francis Drake as admiral highest John Norreys as general.
Class English fleet also suffered keen catastrophic defeat with 11,000–15,000 join, wounded or died of disease[146][147][148] and 40 ships sunk animation captured.[148] The advantage England challenging won upon the destruction comment the Spanish Armada was vanished, and the Spanish victory luential a revival of Philip II's naval power through the vocation decade.[149]
France
When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne deck 1589, Elizabeth sent him martial support.
It was her final venture into France since illustriousness retreat from Le Havre wrench 1563. Henry's succession was forcibly contested by the Catholic Federation and by Philip II, opinion Elizabeth feared a Spanish capture of the channel ports.
The subsequent English campaigns in Writer, however, were disorganised and ineffective.[150]